Final Post: Conclusions

So water we doing in Africa?! (Excuse the pun, again). This blog started off explaining the concepts behind water scarcity in the African continent, commenting that scarcity is often due to economic factors as opposed to a physical lack of water. Water scarcity occurs when annual water supplies fall to 1,000m³ per person. Currently around 1.2 billion people live in areas of physical scarcity, but with climate change this number is set to increase as rainfall and temperature become more variable (UN Water). 

I went on to assess the options for tackling water scarcity and strategies African nations could adopt in the face of climate change. First ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ path approaches were compared, with a preference for the latter. As I stated: ‘Soft path methods are considerably cheaper than engineering options, and also incorporate local users in decision making processes’. 

From this we looked at methods focussing on economics (microfinance), charitable giving (NGOs/WASH charities), hard, large-scale infrastructure (water storage) and finally soft, small-scale projects (rainwater harvesting tanks). Along with a few other relevant topics I found interesting along the way! 

This blog has been close to my heart due to both my love for Africa and keen interest in water science and policy. By exploring different methods it is clear that the way forward is not easy and there are complex factors involved. Firstly the need to recognise and accept the effects climate change will have is crucial, particularly in Africa where the impacts are set to be the worst. Following this further vital research must take place with increased urgency to provide legitimate data to the sector. This data can then be used to inform policies and ideas/strategies for the future. 

My research has brought me to the conclusion that altruistic motives and kind intentions of Western nations to help water provision may not be as “good” as commonly thought. In order for African nations to source, have ownership, sustainably use, and also develop, the process needs to come from within Africa. Governments need to plan and allow for schemes, perhaps with foreign advice and some investment, to provide long-term water for citizens and see the benefits of economic development within their country due to this.

Small-scale projects such as rainwater harvesting show huge promise as they can be built in rural areas with minimal difficulty and contribute to food security through enabling land irrigation. Natural rainwater is used and there is little impact elsewhere. Individuals can take on these projects themselves as opposed to large infrastructure where many people are affected, for perhaps little gain, with not much say in its construction. 

Time to wrap up, but thank you for reading and I hope you lead a happy, water-conscious life!

I leave you with two photos of myself in my two favourite spots in Africa (so far): Livingstonia, Malawi (top) and Cape MacClear, Malawi (bottom), both featuring Lake Malawi. It's clear here that Africa is not the dry, arid region everywhere as often thought. In some regions there is an abundance of water, but policies/economics/infrastructure prevent access, leading to water scarcity.

Small-Scale Solutions: Rainwater Harvesting Tanks

Rainwater harvesting is becoming increasingly popular around the world. The process simply involves collecting water from the surface where it falls and storing it for later use in special tanks (Sustainable Earth Technologies). Individuals are installing harvesting systems in their homes to help reduce their water consumption, such as in the UK (featured in this Guardian article). In Australia, rain harvesting tanks are considered by many to be their main source of water (The Water Project). 

While this may be a way to save money and the environment for developed nations, it has the potential to save lives by providing a water source and food security elsewhere. In Africa rainwater harvesting is becoming an important tool for facing water scarcity due to climate change. Small-scale rainwater harvesting tanks collect water that can be stored locally in a variety of ways, losing less to evaporation than larger-scale infrastructure. An example tank in Uganda is shown below, where water is collected through gutters and stored in a cylindrical tank. 

UN Photo: Rainwater Harvesting Tank, Uganda

Despite Africa being an arid continent, thought of as water scarce, the overall quantity of rainfall across the continent is equivalent to the needs of 9 billion people (UNEP). This rainfall is lost through runoff, but tanks can catch and collect this water. Stored rainwater can then be used for irrigating land for agriculture, as well as for domestic purposes. The tanks provide clean freshwater as rainwater falls straight into tanks and isn’t contaminated in any way. Rainwater harvesting also has the benefit of buffering against drought events by supplying a consistent water source. UNEP argue in their report that the water crisis in Africa is due to economic lack of investment, rather than a matter of physical scarcity. Investment into rain harvesting tanks would help water scarce regions develop and also face future climate uncertainty. 

UNEP's report states that Kenya receives enough rainfall to supply the needs of 3 or 4 times its 40 million population. Kenya is also doing better than most of its neighbouring countries in developing and adopting these technologies (Purcell). Irrigation has greatly expanded through the use of harvesting tanks and other small-scale irrigation projects. Farmers are then able to have 2-3 crops a year, increasing their per hectare gross margins. Women, who do the most field work, also gain greater earning potential, while also saving time collecting water from far away sources. Kenya has vast potential to expand this technology and see more positive benefits. 

Ethiopia is also newly experiencing the rewards of rainwater harvesting schemes. Awulachew points out that ‘frequent dry spells and droughts exacerbate the incidence of crop failure and hence food security and poverty.’ The lack of water storage capacity combined with large spatial and temporal variations in rainfall mean most farmers can only produce one crop a year (IWMI). Through simple rainwater harvesting equipment larger crops are being produced and, again, women are more empowered. 

The benefits of small-scale solutions such as rainwater harvesting are clear to see. Food security is ensured through irrigating land to produce more crops, a source of water is available even in times of drought, with the additional benefit of empowering women and promoting gender equality. As Africa’s climate variability becomes more severe in the years to come, projects such as these will be vital to water availability and food security. Schemes will be even more successful when local businesses produce, build and install the rainwater harvesting tanks themselves as opposed to being externally funded through charity. Employment is created, profits can be fed back into the community and there is a sense of ownership over the tanks ensuring their longevity. 

Water Storage Projects

It has been recognised for some time now that climate change will exacerbate natural variability. Even if total rainfall increases it is likely to become more irregular in intensity and duration (Bates et al., 2008). This is a huge problem for the African continent where water is already scarce. One way of adapting is through water storage projects providing a constant water supply despite uncertainty in the African climate, particularly for agricultural use. Options for water storage include dams for artificial water storage, soil moisture enhancement, natural wetlands, groundwater aquifers and ponds or small tanks to harvest runoff.

There has been a recent proliferation in funding for programmes of this kind in Africa. The World Bank believes water resource schemes provide the basis for broad regional development (2004) and has increased lending to these projects by 50%. At the G8 summit in 2005 the Infrastructure Consortium for Africa was established committing large amounts of aid to water infrastructure development. The EU has also pledged further aid to water storage projects, particularly in Africa. This is backed up in the report ‘Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaption’, where Nelson et al. make recommendations focussing on greater investments in agricultural science and technology to meet the food security demands of increasing population. They argue that food security and climate change adaption go hand in hand, and an additional $7 billion per year is needed to fund adaptation programmes to finance the research, rural infrastructure, and irrigation investments to offset the negative effects of climate change on human well-being. 

However the positive motive behind the donations to these projects has not necessarily led to a positive outcome. In research for the International Water Management Institute, McCartney et al. show the science required for planning and building water storage is often inadequate. In their report they find the understanding of flow and sediment regimes necessary for dam design, knowledge of aquifer extent and recharge for groundwater exploitation and understanding of current climate change variability was often insufficient. “As a result design failures are common, benefits are frequently sub-optimal and, in the worst cases, investments worsen rather than improve people’s well-being” (McCartney et al., p.5).  

Future climate change has the potential to impact water storage projects already in place. As water becomes more scarce the effectiveness of infrastructure may change. Climate change risks for different storage types in Sub-Saharan Africa and the possible social and economic implications are shown in the table below. An example is that of soil moisture in arid regions where reduced rainfall and longer dry periods could mean soil and water conservation methods may fail to increase and maintain soil moisture as planned (McCartney et al.; Chiew et al., 1995; de Wit and Stankiewicz 2006). Further problems exist with regards to health. Boelee has found larger availability of open water surface may increase the transmission of water-related diseases; increased schistosomiasis is associated with small reservoirs in Burkina Faso and malaria around large dams in Ethiopia (2013). 

Climate change risks for different storage types in Sub-Saharan Africa and the possible social and economic implications

Water storage options need to be planned and managed carefully with their potential impacts, particularly regarding climate change, in mind. Future variations need to be considered to ensure projects will still operate and be of use for years to come. Western institutions willingly donate huge sums of money to fund water programmes but African nations may feel they have little ownership over them. Therefore they may not put sufficient care into their organisation and have limited interest or knowledge of the repercussions. If money is being given towards projects of this nature, considerations need to be taken by donors to ensure they are appropriate projects with hopefully few problems in years to come.  Managers with sufficient expertise and experience need to assess potential impacts at all levels and scales before building water storage infrastructure, and weigh these against the benefits. Water storage solutions may be necessary for food and health security in many parts of Africa but projects must be undertaken with care. 

Water use this Christmas: at home and in Africa

As I loaded the dishwasher this morning for almost the 20th time this week following a lengthy power-shower this morning, it dawned on me quite how much water we’d used this Christmas period. Christmas is well known for being a time of excess but in no area, bar perhaps eating enormous amounts of cheese, is this more apparent than water usage. Large volumes are used for heating, personal hygiene, toilet flushing, laundry and most of all cooking vast quantities of food. 

Waterwise state that the average UK citizen uses 150 litres a day, but when you take into account the embedded water used to grow and produce the food and drink we consume, this is closer to 3400 litres per day (2014). According to the UN a human being needs 50 litres a day to maintain good health, so on average the UK uses triple what we need. The pie chart below shows how the UK uses water within their homes (Waterwise).  

In Africa the average water use is 20 litres a day per person for domestic consumption (Water for Africa Institute). That is a 1.5 minute shower for most of the UK population. As well as being a considerably lower volume of water per person than the UK, Africans also have limited access to clean water. Waterborne diseases are a constant threat. 

As Africa’s population rapidly increases and climate change makes water more scarce, the volume of water available per person is decreasing even further below the level recommended by the UN. Whilst we in the UK need to become more water efficient and use less, there is an urgent need in Africa to improve access to larger volumes of clean and safe water. This blog has looked at some strategies already in place, and will continue to research into more. 

Perhaps in the Christmas spirit of caring for others and giving you could have a think about what you can do to improve water access in Africa! Merry Christmas and a happy new year! 

Are WASH charities actually effective?

In recent years there has been a huge increase in the number and scope of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) focussing on water projects. NGOs are highly-regarded for their flexibility to adapt to local situations and needs by using innovative approaches. They can identify with people, tailor their assistance and can recruit both experts and motivated staff to communicate at all levels, from neighbourhood to government. But while many of these charities may build pumps, toilets and other infrastructure, the actual success of projects may be limited. The altruistic motives behind these charities are often based on the fact that one feels they should donate rather than actually assisting with development. 

There is very little data on NGOs’ results or performance. Whilst researching for this post I found it difficult to find details on the current state of WASH infrastructure in African countries. NGO data is often written by the people involved in the organisations themselves so can be biased and obscure the truth (Lewis). An example of this is charity:water, an NGO based upon transparency with 100% of their donations going straight into WASH projects. However when examining this charity it is unclear how many people have access to clean water as a result of their work. When Anne Moore was researching the charity for her blog she was told ‘Since 2006, we’ve funded 6,994 water projects in 20 countries. What we don’t know and are currently investing in, is technology to tell us in realtime when the pumps are broken or need maintenance’. In my opinion this is surely the most important part of any project: ensuring the maintenance, continuity and success of any infrastructure for many years to come. 

NGOs are often accused of undermining local governments leading to serious tensions. A reliance on non-governmental sources of funding can lead to a negative dependency and doesn’t help the country in the longer term. The Country Assistance Framework (CAF) in Democratic Republic of Congo is an initiative for effective co-ordination between NGOs and government, ensuring the available capacity is put to best use (UNESCO). CAF calls for country-level co-ordination between NGOs and government; this needs to be practical and aimed at improving the understanding of the roles and responsibilities of various actors. UNESCO concludes that national-level philanthropy, NGO subsidies and sponsorship are essential for developing an organised civil society that can deliver MDGs and protect water resources. Developments in a country need to come from the creation of government institutions responsible for each sector which will ensure the long term success of water projects, rather than purely from unaccountable NGOs.

A further problem with NGO involvement in the African WASH sector is their self-interest and imposition of their own agendas. Mozambique, for example, is heavily dependent on donations from the Netherlands. This has led to projects being heavily influenced by Dutch donors and scientists who priorities large-scale users and investors over small-scale farmers. The 30 largest users use 89% of total volume whilst 910 other users 11% (IDS). It is hugely important the priorities of those in need are put first, and altruism does not begin to appear as neo-colonialism. 

The NGO sector also suffers due to a lack of organisation. The sheer number of NGOs within the WASH sector can pose problems. Activities are often scattered throughout many small projects and it is unclear who the individual charities are and what is being done by whom in different areas (UNESCO). This follows from NGOs as self-interested actors not clearly communicating with locals, governments and other NGOs to effectively deliver projects. Coordination is needed at all levels to ensure operations work together to achieve a goal of providing access to water. 

David Damberger, from Engineers without Borders, explains these issues with aid in his TEDx talk; he admits the failures of NGOs and how we can learn from their mistakes.

World Toilet Day: 19th November 2014

This is just a small post to draw attention to an important global event that took place last week. The 19th November was World Toilet Day, with 2014’s theme being ‘Equality and Dignity’. UN-Water, collaborating with governments, NGOs such as Water Aid and many other stakeholders, organised World Toilet Day to raise awareness of the poor levels of sanitation and hygiene in some parts of the world. Although inviting many jokes due to the often humorous topic of toilets, many talks and events took place to highlight these issues and engage people in plans of action to tackle problems. 

In brief: (UN-Water)

• 2.5 billion people, of the world’s 7 billion, do not have improved access to sanitation 
• 1 billion still defecate in the open - putting women and girls at risk of rape and abuse due to lack of privacy
• Where toilets do exist they are often unsuitable for populations with special needs (e.g. disabled and elderly) and women and girls needing facilities for menstrual hygiene

Click here for a message from the UN Deputy Secretary-General on World Toilet Day to a conference organised by Water Aid and Unilever in Brussels. He points out that 1.8 billion people woke up that morning drinking water contaminated by open deification, and encourages people to join him in facing the sanitation challenge head on and recognise the huge importance of the toilet for saving lives and preserving dignity. 

Access to clean water and toilets is something most people in developed countries take for granted and don't think twice about. Events such as World Toilet Day are vital to raising awareness for issues facing the world. Even if toilet humour is prominent around this issue, at least jokes mean people are acknowledging the need to improve sanitation.

I leave you with Matt Damon embracing the comical side to World Toilet Day: 

Matt Damon is one of the biggest campaigners for improving global access to water and sanitation and runs the charity water.org. 

Microfinance: The Way Forward?

Microfinance is increasingly being recognised as a sustainable development mechanism supporting entrepreneurship, alleviating poverty and reducing gender inequality. Small loans (typically less than half a million USD) are provided to the poor to fund small projects. Many organisations are using Microfinance to improve water access, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Water.org began it’s WaterCredit initiative in 2003, with their first African project in Kenya in 2005. They work on the premise that ‘many people in the developing world can, and want to, finance safe water and sanitation if they are able to pay for these services over time, as well as have a voice in their development and operation’ (Water.org). Water.org provides initial financing and technical expertise to Financial Institutions (FIs), connects them with WASH NGOs and helps them build small loan portfolios. By September 2014 they had disbursed 17,533 water and sanitation loans, serving 91,091 people, with an average loan recovery of 96% (Water.org). 

Click here to watch a video of Gary White, CEO of Water.org, explaining WaterCredit on CNBC Africa

There are numerous benefits to this scheme. Water access and sanitation needs are met whilst empowering local people, particularly females, by putting them in control of their own businesses. Easy access to water and sanitation subsequently means previous time spent fetching water can be spent on other activities, increasing the productivity of those with WaterCredit. Families working with the scheme can also grow their income by saving the money not being spent on the local vended water price. 

However, in my mind there are still a few issues with microfinancing the WASH sector in developing countries. It is questionable as to whether Microcredits actually alleviate poverty or just lead borrowers into a debt trap. Microfinance schemes are offered to the poor for almost everything so many people may find they are bound to repaying large numbers of loans in order to have a range of many basic services. Behavioural change is also required in several areas; creating water services does not necessarily lead to demand, and encouragement may be needed for people to actually use the new services.

Further, providing the funding to enable the creation of WASH services needs to be accompanied by additional changes ensuring the success and maintenance of each project. In a report by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation they recognise the need to put appropriate policies in place to create space for the use of Microfinance in the WASH sector (Gates Foundation). Country-level assessments are needed examining local governments and banking systems for successful Microfinance projects. 

Microfinance, particularly through WaterCredit, is an important step in improving WASH services in Africa. As a response to failed aid schemes, it goes someway to assisting communities but is still not fully sustainable and may appear as neo-colonialism. Lenders need to ensure their loans are appropriate in the context of the countries’ policies, their funds will lead to successful schemes and not further debt.