Final Post: Conclusions

So water we doing in Africa?! (Excuse the pun, again). This blog started off explaining the concepts behind water scarcity in the African continent, commenting that scarcity is often due to economic factors as opposed to a physical lack of water. Water scarcity occurs when annual water supplies fall to 1,000m³ per person. Currently around 1.2 billion people live in areas of physical scarcity, but with climate change this number is set to increase as rainfall and temperature become more variable (UN Water). 

I went on to assess the options for tackling water scarcity and strategies African nations could adopt in the face of climate change. First ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ path approaches were compared, with a preference for the latter. As I stated: ‘Soft path methods are considerably cheaper than engineering options, and also incorporate local users in decision making processes’. 

From this we looked at methods focussing on economics (microfinance), charitable giving (NGOs/WASH charities), hard, large-scale infrastructure (water storage) and finally soft, small-scale projects (rainwater harvesting tanks). Along with a few other relevant topics I found interesting along the way! 

This blog has been close to my heart due to both my love for Africa and keen interest in water science and policy. By exploring different methods it is clear that the way forward is not easy and there are complex factors involved. Firstly the need to recognise and accept the effects climate change will have is crucial, particularly in Africa where the impacts are set to be the worst. Following this further vital research must take place with increased urgency to provide legitimate data to the sector. This data can then be used to inform policies and ideas/strategies for the future. 

My research has brought me to the conclusion that altruistic motives and kind intentions of Western nations to help water provision may not be as “good” as commonly thought. In order for African nations to source, have ownership, sustainably use, and also develop, the process needs to come from within Africa. Governments need to plan and allow for schemes, perhaps with foreign advice and some investment, to provide long-term water for citizens and see the benefits of economic development within their country due to this.

Small-scale projects such as rainwater harvesting show huge promise as they can be built in rural areas with minimal difficulty and contribute to food security through enabling land irrigation. Natural rainwater is used and there is little impact elsewhere. Individuals can take on these projects themselves as opposed to large infrastructure where many people are affected, for perhaps little gain, with not much say in its construction. 

Time to wrap up, but thank you for reading and I hope you lead a happy, water-conscious life!

I leave you with two photos of myself in my two favourite spots in Africa (so far): Livingstonia, Malawi (top) and Cape MacClear, Malawi (bottom), both featuring Lake Malawi. It's clear here that Africa is not the dry, arid region everywhere as often thought. In some regions there is an abundance of water, but policies/economics/infrastructure prevent access, leading to water scarcity.

Small-Scale Solutions: Rainwater Harvesting Tanks

Rainwater harvesting is becoming increasingly popular around the world. The process simply involves collecting water from the surface where it falls and storing it for later use in special tanks (Sustainable Earth Technologies). Individuals are installing harvesting systems in their homes to help reduce their water consumption, such as in the UK (featured in this Guardian article). In Australia, rain harvesting tanks are considered by many to be their main source of water (The Water Project). 

While this may be a way to save money and the environment for developed nations, it has the potential to save lives by providing a water source and food security elsewhere. In Africa rainwater harvesting is becoming an important tool for facing water scarcity due to climate change. Small-scale rainwater harvesting tanks collect water that can be stored locally in a variety of ways, losing less to evaporation than larger-scale infrastructure. An example tank in Uganda is shown below, where water is collected through gutters and stored in a cylindrical tank. 

UN Photo: Rainwater Harvesting Tank, Uganda

Despite Africa being an arid continent, thought of as water scarce, the overall quantity of rainfall across the continent is equivalent to the needs of 9 billion people (UNEP). This rainfall is lost through runoff, but tanks can catch and collect this water. Stored rainwater can then be used for irrigating land for agriculture, as well as for domestic purposes. The tanks provide clean freshwater as rainwater falls straight into tanks and isn’t contaminated in any way. Rainwater harvesting also has the benefit of buffering against drought events by supplying a consistent water source. UNEP argue in their report that the water crisis in Africa is due to economic lack of investment, rather than a matter of physical scarcity. Investment into rain harvesting tanks would help water scarce regions develop and also face future climate uncertainty. 

UNEP's report states that Kenya receives enough rainfall to supply the needs of 3 or 4 times its 40 million population. Kenya is also doing better than most of its neighbouring countries in developing and adopting these technologies (Purcell). Irrigation has greatly expanded through the use of harvesting tanks and other small-scale irrigation projects. Farmers are then able to have 2-3 crops a year, increasing their per hectare gross margins. Women, who do the most field work, also gain greater earning potential, while also saving time collecting water from far away sources. Kenya has vast potential to expand this technology and see more positive benefits. 

Ethiopia is also newly experiencing the rewards of rainwater harvesting schemes. Awulachew points out that ‘frequent dry spells and droughts exacerbate the incidence of crop failure and hence food security and poverty.’ The lack of water storage capacity combined with large spatial and temporal variations in rainfall mean most farmers can only produce one crop a year (IWMI). Through simple rainwater harvesting equipment larger crops are being produced and, again, women are more empowered. 

The benefits of small-scale solutions such as rainwater harvesting are clear to see. Food security is ensured through irrigating land to produce more crops, a source of water is available even in times of drought, with the additional benefit of empowering women and promoting gender equality. As Africa’s climate variability becomes more severe in the years to come, projects such as these will be vital to water availability and food security. Schemes will be even more successful when local businesses produce, build and install the rainwater harvesting tanks themselves as opposed to being externally funded through charity. Employment is created, profits can be fed back into the community and there is a sense of ownership over the tanks ensuring their longevity. 

Water Storage Projects

It has been recognised for some time now that climate change will exacerbate natural variability. Even if total rainfall increases it is likely to become more irregular in intensity and duration (Bates et al., 2008). This is a huge problem for the African continent where water is already scarce. One way of adapting is through water storage projects providing a constant water supply despite uncertainty in the African climate, particularly for agricultural use. Options for water storage include dams for artificial water storage, soil moisture enhancement, natural wetlands, groundwater aquifers and ponds or small tanks to harvest runoff.

There has been a recent proliferation in funding for programmes of this kind in Africa. The World Bank believes water resource schemes provide the basis for broad regional development (2004) and has increased lending to these projects by 50%. At the G8 summit in 2005 the Infrastructure Consortium for Africa was established committing large amounts of aid to water infrastructure development. The EU has also pledged further aid to water storage projects, particularly in Africa. This is backed up in the report ‘Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaption’, where Nelson et al. make recommendations focussing on greater investments in agricultural science and technology to meet the food security demands of increasing population. They argue that food security and climate change adaption go hand in hand, and an additional $7 billion per year is needed to fund adaptation programmes to finance the research, rural infrastructure, and irrigation investments to offset the negative effects of climate change on human well-being. 

However the positive motive behind the donations to these projects has not necessarily led to a positive outcome. In research for the International Water Management Institute, McCartney et al. show the science required for planning and building water storage is often inadequate. In their report they find the understanding of flow and sediment regimes necessary for dam design, knowledge of aquifer extent and recharge for groundwater exploitation and understanding of current climate change variability was often insufficient. “As a result design failures are common, benefits are frequently sub-optimal and, in the worst cases, investments worsen rather than improve people’s well-being” (McCartney et al., p.5).  

Future climate change has the potential to impact water storage projects already in place. As water becomes more scarce the effectiveness of infrastructure may change. Climate change risks for different storage types in Sub-Saharan Africa and the possible social and economic implications are shown in the table below. An example is that of soil moisture in arid regions where reduced rainfall and longer dry periods could mean soil and water conservation methods may fail to increase and maintain soil moisture as planned (McCartney et al.; Chiew et al., 1995; de Wit and Stankiewicz 2006). Further problems exist with regards to health. Boelee has found larger availability of open water surface may increase the transmission of water-related diseases; increased schistosomiasis is associated with small reservoirs in Burkina Faso and malaria around large dams in Ethiopia (2013). 

Climate change risks for different storage types in Sub-Saharan Africa and the possible social and economic implications

Water storage options need to be planned and managed carefully with their potential impacts, particularly regarding climate change, in mind. Future variations need to be considered to ensure projects will still operate and be of use for years to come. Western institutions willingly donate huge sums of money to fund water programmes but African nations may feel they have little ownership over them. Therefore they may not put sufficient care into their organisation and have limited interest or knowledge of the repercussions. If money is being given towards projects of this nature, considerations need to be taken by donors to ensure they are appropriate projects with hopefully few problems in years to come.  Managers with sufficient expertise and experience need to assess potential impacts at all levels and scales before building water storage infrastructure, and weigh these against the benefits. Water storage solutions may be necessary for food and health security in many parts of Africa but projects must be undertaken with care.